Reigned AD 976–1025
Basil II and the Balkan Wars
Basil II ruled from AD 976 to 1025 and spent much of his reign consolidating imperial authority. His long conflict with the…
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Constantinople
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First period AD 726–787; second period AD 815–843
Byzantine Iconoclasm
Byzantine Iconoclasm involved periods when emperors and church leaders restricted or condemned the veneration of sacred images. Supporters of icons defended their…
Read story →Fourth–fifteenth centuries
Byzantine Law and the Legacy of Rome
Byzantine law developed from Roman imperial legislation, Justinian's codification and later Greek-language revisions. It governed property, family, trade, crime and relations between…
Read story →Fourth–fifteenth centuries
Byzantine Manuscripts and Learning
Byzantine scholars copied Christian works, ancient literature, philosophy, medicine, law and science into hand-written codices. Manuscript production was essential to education and…
Read story →Late Antiquity to the present
Byzantine Music and Chant
Byzantine chant is the musical tradition associated with the Greek-speaking Orthodox Church. It developed through liturgical poetry, modal systems, trained singers and…
Read story →Fourth–fifteenth centuries
Byzantine Trade and the Mediterranean
Byzantine trade moved grain, wine, oil, ceramics, textiles, metals, spices and luxury goods across the Mediterranean and Black Sea. Constantinople was the…
Read story →Fifteenth–early nineteenth centuries
Education in Ottoman Greek Communities
Greek education under Ottoman rule varied greatly by place and period. Community schools, church institutions, merchant sponsorship and private teaching expanded literacy…
Read story →Used from the seventh century onward
Greek Fire and Byzantine Defence
Greek fire was a flammable substance used especially by the Byzantine navy. It could be projected through tubes or used in containers…
Read story →Completed in AD 537
Hagia Sophia: Architecture of an Empire
Hagia Sophia was completed in the sixth century under Emperor Justinian I. Built as the great cathedral of Constantinople, it later became…
Read story →Late Antiquity–fifteenth century
Icons and the Theology of Images
Byzantine icons represented Christ, the Virgin, saints and sacred events in panel paintings, mosaics, frescoes, textiles, ivory and precious materials.
Read story →Reigned AD 527–565
Justinian I and the Restoration of Empire
Justinian I ruled from AD 527 to 565. His government reconquered territories in North Africa, Italy and Spain, codified Roman law and…
Read story →Fourth century–1453
The Byzantine Empire and the Greek World
The state now called the Byzantine Empire was the eastern continuation of the Roman Empire, centred on Constantinople. Its inhabitants called themselves…
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